![]() The transition from the old quantum theory to full-fledged quantum physics began in 1925, when Werner Heisenberg presented a treatment of electron behavior based on discussing only "observable" quantities, meaning to Heisenberg the frequencies of light that atoms absorbed and emitted. From 1922 through 1925, this method of heuristic corrections encountered increasing difficulties for example, the Bohr–Sommerfeld model could not be extended from hydrogen to the next simplest case, the helium atom. Notable results from this period include Max Planck's calculation of the blackbody radiation spectrum, Albert Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect, Einstein and Peter Debye's work on the specific heat of solids, Niels Bohr and Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen's proof that classical physics cannot account for diamagnetism, Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom and Arnold Sommerfeld's extension of the Bohr model to include relativistic effects. During the intervening period, now known as the time of the " old quantum theory", physicists worked with approximations and heuristic corrections to classical physics. However, it was not until a quarter-century had elapsed that the revision reached the status of a coherent theory. Starting in 1900, investigations into atomic and subatomic phenomena forced a revision to the basic concepts of classical physics. Over the years, there have been many objections to aspects of Copenhagen-type interpretations, including the discontinuous and stochastic nature of the "observation" or "measurement" process, the apparent subjectivity of requiring an observer, the difficulty of defining what might count as a measuring device, and the seeming reliance upon classical physics in describing such devices. Copenhagen-type interpretations hold that quantum descriptions are objective, in that they are independent of physicists' mental arbitrariness. Moreover, the act of "observing" or "measuring" an object is irreversible, and no truth can be attributed to an object, except according to the results of its measurement. įeatures common to Copenhagen-type interpretations include the idea that quantum mechanics is intrinsically indeterministic, with probabilities calculated using the Born rule, and the principle of complementarity, which states that objects have certain pairs of complementary properties that cannot all be observed or measured simultaneously. For example, Heisenberg emphasized a sharp "cut" between the observer (or the instrument) and the system being observed, : 133 while Bohr offered an interpretation that is independent of a subjective observer or measurement or collapse, which relies on an "irreversible" or effectively irreversible process, which could take place within the quantum system. There are some fundamental agreements and disagreements between the views of Bohr and Heisenberg. There is no definitive historical statement of what the Copenhagen interpretation is. It is one of the oldest of numerous proposed interpretations of quantum mechanics, as features of it date to the development of quantum mechanics during 1925–1927, and it remains one of the most commonly taught. ![]() ![]() Nevertheless, the general meaning of the energy-time principle is that a quantum state that exists for only a short time cannot have a definite energy.The Copenhagen interpretation is a collection of views about the meaning of quantum mechanics, principally attributed to Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg. For technical reasons beyond this discussion. ![]()
0 Comments
Leave a Reply. |
AuthorWrite something about yourself. No need to be fancy, just an overview. ArchivesCategories |